Word Finding Difficulties

 

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Word Finding Assessment

This section of the web site presents the steps for a comprehensive assessment of a child's word finding skills. Below is a description of each of these assessment steps. Obtaining this information is important in planning an intervention program for a learner with word finding difficulties. References in the area of word finding assessment are also provided.

Steps for Assessing Word Finding Difficulties and Diagnostic Instruments:


Step 1. Conduct formal assessment of word finding using standardized tests developed specifically to assess word finding.
Step 2. Assess student's word knowledge.
Step 3. Follow up with informal assessment and diagnostic teaching.

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Step 1. Conduct Formal Assessment of Word Finding Using Standardized Tests Developed Specifically to Assess Word Finding

It is the in-depth formal diagnostic assessment of word finding that provides the specific information needed to develop an individualized word finding intervention program. Formal assessment of a student's word finding difficulties is implemented by using a norm referenced battery of tests designed specifically to assess word finding. These standardized assessments should evaluate a student's retrieval skills in both convergent and divergent retrieval contexts. Assessment of student's convergent retrieval skills consists of single word naming tasks that assess the student's ability to retrieve words that satisfy specific semantic constraints imposed by a context. Assessment of a student's divergent naming skills is completed through an analysis of a narrative generated in response to a stimulus. Available normed referenced tests in word finding and their descriptions are described in the next section.

Word-Finding Assessment in Single Word Naming Contexts

Two normed referenced measures developed to assess a learner's word finding skills in single word naming tasks are the Test of Word Finding- Second Edition (TWF-2) (German, 2000) and the Test of Adolescent and Adult Word Finding (TAWF) (German, 1990). These tests require the learner to retrieve target words in several single word naming contexts, using accuracy and response time to define word finding difficulties. They provide guidelines for analyzing student response errors, and include a comprehension assessment of target words that were named incorrectly. The latter assessment helps examiners differentiate between students whose naming errors are due to general vocabulary deficits from those students who have word finding problems in the presence of good comprehension of the target word.

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Table: Normed-Referenced Tests for Single Word Naming


Test Name Description

Test of Word Finding-Second Edition (TWF-2) (German, 2000)

Test of Word Finding-2

PRO-ED, Inc.
8700 Shoal Creek Blvd.

Austin, TX 78757
www.proedinc.com

Test of Word Finding, Second Edition
TWF-2 is a nationally standardized, individually administered diagnostic tool for the assessment of children's word finding skills. Norms are provided for children 4 years through 12 years 11 months. Both standardized and informal word finding assessments are included. The TWF-2 assesses word finding in 4 different naming sections:
1. Picture Naming Nouns,
2. Sentence Completion Naming
3. Picture Naming Verbs
4. Picture Naming Categories

Test of Adolescent and Adult Word Finding (TAWF) (German 1990)Test of Adolescent and Adult Word Finding

PRO-ED, Inc.
8700 Shoal Creek Blvd.

Austin, TX 78757
www.proedinc.com

The TAWF is a nationally standardized, individually administered tool for the assessment of word finding skills in adolescents and adults. Norms are provided for learners 12 to 80 years. Both standardized and informal word finding assessments are included. The TAWF assesses word finding in five different naming sections.
1. Picture Naming- Nouns,
2. Sentence Completion Naming
3. Description Naming
4. Picture Naming Verbs
5. Picture Naming Categories

Word Finding Assessment in Discourse

Although word finding assessment has focused primarily on single word naming contexts (convergent naming), it is also important to evaluate student's word finding skills in the discourse context. In an analysis of a student's word finding skills in discourse, examiners focus on the student's language productivity and the incidence of word finding behaviors in their narratives (German, 1987, German & Simon, 1991). The Test of Word finding in Discourse (German, 1991) assesses children's word finding skills in narratives. It is presented in the table below.

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Test Name Description

Test of Word Finding in Discourse (TWFD) (German, 1991)Test of Word Finding in Discourse

PRO-ED, Inc.
8700 Shoal Creek Blvd.

Austin, TX 78757
www.proedinc.com

The TWFD is a nationally standardized, individually administered diagnostic tool for the assessment of children's word finding skills in discourse. Norms are provided for children 6 years 6 months through 12 years 11 months.
The examiner obtains a sample of the child's
discourse. The obtained language sample is then
analyzed for language productivity and the
incidence of word finding behaviors present in the narrative.

Step 2. Assess Student's Word Knowledge

An assessment of a student's word finding abilities is primarily an evaluation of the student's oral language skills. However, it is critical to differentiate between vocabulary difficulties that are due to difficulties in learning meanings and building semantic networks and vocabulary difficulties that are due to word retrieval problems. Assessing a student's word knowledge can help in this differential diagnosis. Therefore, a measure of a student's word knowledge should be part of the evaluation to identify word finding difficulties. Some tests to measure word knowledge are provided in the table below.

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Table: Tests of Word Knowledge

Test Name Description

Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test-III. (PPVT-III). (Dunn & Dunn, 1999)

American Guidance Services
http://www.agsnet.com

Measures listening comprehension for spoken words in standard English.

Test of Auditory Comprehension of Language -Third Edition (Carrow-Woolfok, 1999)

PRO-ED, Inc.
8700 Shoal Creek Blvd.

Austin, TX 78757
www.proedinc.com

Subtest 1 Vocabulary.
Assesses the Student's knowledge of nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs that represent basic percepts and concepts.

Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals (CELF-4) (Semel, Wiig, & Secord, 2003)

The Psychological Corporation
San Antonio, TX
www.psychcorp.com

Receptive Language Subtests:
Provides a comprehensive assessment of receptive language skills including knowledge of specific vocabulary.


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Step 3. Follow Up with Informal Assessment Procedures and Diagnostic Teaching

Finally, formal test results are best interpreted when integrated with informal analysis and observations of a student's word finding skills across the day. With regard to the former, examiners can follow up standardized assessment with informal diagnostic procedures to clarify formal test results. For example, the TWF-2 provides examiners with supplementary analyses focused on analyzing the three types of word finding errors typically produced by students with word finding difficulties as well as assessing student's responsiveness to phonemic cueing on erred target words. These informal analysis are helpful in formulating hypotheses about the underlying nature of the student's word finding disruptions. Further, findings from formal tests should be verified through informal observations of the student's word finding skills in the classroom and at home.

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References for Word Finding Assessment


Bishop, D., (1994). Grammatical errors in specific language impairment: Competence or performance limitations? Applied Psycholinguistics, 15, 507-550.

Blachman, B. A. (1984 ). Relationship of rapid naming ability and language analysis skills to kindergarten and first-grade reading achievement. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76,610-622.

Bowers, P.G. (1995). Tracing symbol naming speed's unique contributions to reading disabilities over time. Reading and Writing: An Interdisciplinary Journal, 7,1-28.

Bowers, P.G; Swanson, L.B. (1991). Naming speed deficits in reading disability: Multiple measures of a singular process. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology , 51,195-219.

Compton, C. (1996). A guide to 100 tests for special education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Globe Fearon Educational Publisher.

Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1974). Rapid automatic naming of pictured objects, colors, letters and numbers by normal children. Cortex, 1, 186-202.

Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976a). Naming of object drawing by dyslexic and other learning disabled children. Brain and Language, 3,1-15.

Denckla, M. B., & Rudel, R. G. (1976b). Rapid automatized naming (RAN): Dyslexic differentiated from other learning disabilities. Neuropsychologia, 14,471-479.

Donahue, M. (1989). Review of the Test of Word Finding. In J.C. Conoley & J.J. Kramer (Eds.), The tenth mental measurements yearbook. (pp. 855-857). Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.

Drum, P.A. (1989). Review of the Test of Word Finding. In J.C. Conoley & J.J. Kramer (Eds.), The tenth mental measurements yearbook. (pp. 857-858). Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.

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Dunn, L., & Dunn, L. (1997). Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test III. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Gardner, M.F. (1985). Receptive One-Word Picture Vocabulary Test. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy Publications.

Gardner, M.F. (1990). Expressive One- Word Picture Vocabulary Test-Revised. Novato, CA: Academic Therapy.

German, D. J. (1984). Diagnosis of word-finding disorders in children with learning disabilities. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 17, 353-358.

German, D. J. (1987b, November). Word-finding skills in constrained versus spontaneous naming. Paper presented at the meeting of the

American Speech-Language-Hearing Association, New Orleans.

German, D. J. (1986/1989). National College of Education Test of Word Finding. Austin TX: PRO-ED.

German, D. J. (1990). National College of Education Test of Adolescent/Adult Word Finding. Austin TX: PRO-ED.

German, D. J. (1991). Test of Word-Finding in Discourse.Austin TX: PRO-ED.

German. D.J. (1996). The effect of word finding difficulties on intellectual assessment. Journal of Psychological Assessment, 14, 373-383.

German, D.J., & German, A.E. (1993). Word Finding Referral Checklist. Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

German, D.J. (2000). Test of Word Finding, Second Edition (TWF-2). Austin TX: PRO-ED.

Hammill, D. D., Brown, L. & Bryant, B.R. (1992). A consumer'sguide to tests in print. 2nd ed.). Austin, TX: PRO-ED.

Harris, L.G., & Shelton, I.S. (1993). Desk reference of assessments in speech-language. Tucson, Arizona: Communication Skill Builders.

Hodson, B. W. (1997). Disordered phonologies: What have we learned about assessment and treatment? In B. W. Hodson & M. L. Edwards (Eds.), Perspectives in applied phonology (pp. 197-224). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

Hodson, B.W., & Edwards, M.L. (1997). Perspectives in applied phonology (pp. 197-224). Gaithersburg, MD: Aspen.

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Hsu, J. R., & Hsu, L.M. (1994). Test of Word Finding. In D. J. Keyser, & R. C. Sweetland (Eds.). Test critiques (pp.728-747). Austin, Tx: PRO-ED.

Huttenlocher, J., & Kubicek, L. F. (1983). The source of relatedness effects on naming latency. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 9, 486-496.

Kaplan, E., Goodglass, H., & Weintraub, S. (1983). Boston Naming Test. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.

Katz, R. B. (1986). Phonological deficiencies in children with reading disabilities: Evidence from an object-naming task. Cognition, 22,225-257.

Katz, W., Curtis, S., & Tallal, P. (1992) . Rapid automatized naming and gesture by normal and language impaired children. Brain and Language, 43,623-641.

Kindlon, D., & Garrison, W. (1984). The Boston Naming Test: Norm data and cue utilization in a sample of normal 6 and 7 year-old children. Brain and Language, 21,255-259.

Lahey, M., & Edwards, J. (1996). Why do children with specific language impairment name pictures more slowly than their peers? Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39(5), 1081-1097.

Li, E. C., & Williams, S. E. (1989). The efficacy of two types of cues in aphasic patients. Aphasiology, 3,619-626.

Love, R., & Webb, W. (1977). The efficacy of cueing techniques in Broca's aphasia. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 42,170-178.

Mardell-Czudnowski, C. & Goldenberg, D. (1998). Developmental indicators for the Assessment of Learning- Third Edition. Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service.

Mardell-Czudnowski, C. & Goldenberg, D. (1999). The changing face of early childhood assessment: DIAL-3. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 9 (3), 131-137.

McBride-Chang, C., Franklin, R.(1996). Structural invariance in the associations of naming speed, phonological awareness, and verbal reasoning in good and poor readers: A test of the double deficit hypothesis. Reading and Writing : an Interdisciplinary Journal, 88(4), 323ó339.

Nussbaum, N.L. (1999). Test Reviews: Test of Adolescent/Adult Word
Finding. Journal of Psychoeducational Assessment, 17, 181-186.

Pease, D., & Goodglass, H. (1978). The effects of cueing on picture naming in aphasia. Cortex, 14, 178-189.

Rubin, H., Bernstein, S., & Katz, R. B. (1989). Effects of cues on object naming in first grade good and poor readers. Annals of Dyslexia, 39,116-124.

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Rubin, H., & Liberman, I. (1983). Exploring the oral and written language errors made by language disabled children. Annals of Dyslexia, 33, 110-120.

Semel, E.M., Wiig, E.H., & Secord, W.A. (1995). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-ThirdEdition. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

Semel, E.M., Wiig, E.H., & Secord, W.A. (2003). Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals-Fourth Edition. San Antonio: The Psychological Corporation.

Snowling, M., Wagtendonk, B., & Stafford, C. (1988). Object-naming deficits in developmental dyslexia. Journal of Research in Reading, 11, 67-85.

Snyder, L.S., & Downey, D.M. (1995). Serial rapid naming skills in children with reading disabilities. Annals of Dyslexia, 45, 31-49.

Stimley, M. A. & Noll, J. D. (1991). The effects of semantic and phonemic prestimulation cues on picture naming in aphasia. Brain and Language, 41,496-509.

Wallace, G., & Hammill, D. (1994). Comprehensive Receptive and Expressive Vocabulary Test. Austin TX: PRO-ED.

Walsh, D. J., Price, G. G., & Gillingham M. G. (1988). The critical but transitory importance of letter naming. Reading Research Quarterly, 23, 108-122.

Weinberg, S. (1992). Review of the Test of Word Finding. In J. J. Kramer & J.C. Conoley (Eds.), The eleventh mental measurements yearbook. (pp. 977-978). Lincoln: The University of Nebraska Press.

Weismer, S. E. (1992). Review of the Test of Word Finding. In J.J. Kramer &
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Wiig, E.H., Zureich, P., & Chan, H. H. (2000). A clinical rationale for
assessing rapid, automatized naming in children with language disorders,
Journal of Learning Disabilities, 33(4), 359-374.

Wolf, M. (1986). Rapid alternating stimulus naming in the developmental dyslexias. Brain and Language, 27, 360-379.

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 ©2000 - 2012 Diane G. German, Ph.D.
Last updated January 2012